History.—The question of the origin of the Chinese has been apeuered by several foreign savants: J. Edkins (China’s Place in Philology) seeks in Armenia or Mesopotamia a common origin of European and Asiatic languages. Gust. Schlegel (Sinico-Aryaca) made a comparison between the primitive roots of the Chinese and Aryan languages; the theory of an Egyptian origin has found favour with Kircher, Mairan, De Guignes, and Pauthier. Terrien de Lacouperie has pushed to the limit the theory of so-called Bak tribes migrating from Elam to the banks of the Hwang-ho, 2500 .c.,and taking with them the civilization of what was later China. The foundations of these clever and lightly-built theories are slight; the only alternative is to follow Chinese tradition with its legends.
The first man was P’an-ku, the Chinese Adam, followed by the thirteen celestial kings, T'ien-wang, the eleven terrestrial kings, Ti-wang, and the nine human kings, Jen-wang. These ages comprise the first eight of the ten periods or K'i, into which Chinese historians divide the early history of their country. Next come the Five Sovereigns: Fu-hi, inventor of the art of writing; Shin-nung, who invented the plough and taught the art of husbandry; Hwang-ti, inventor of the fine arts, of ships, etc., whose wife taught men to raise silk worms and to weave silk; Shao-hao, who established the different classes of civil and military officials; Chuen-hiu, author of the calendar. These were followed by the two great emperors, the sages of China, Yao (2357-2257 n. c.), during whose reign occurred the great flood, and Shun. Yu, chosen by Shun as his successor, founded the first or Hia dynasty (2205 8. c.), which comprised seventeen sovereigns, under whom the monarchy became hereditary. The last emperor, Ti-kwei, fled to Nan-chao.—The second dynasty, known first as the Shang (1766 w. c.) and after 1401 8. c. as the Yin, comprised twenty-eight sovereigns, and was founded by Ch’eng-t’ang. The last prince, Chou, was burnt to death (1122),—The third or Chou dynasty, which began in 1122 8. c. and comprised thirty-eight sovereigns, was founded by Wu-wang, son of Wen-wang, and brother of Chou-kung. Under this dynasty appeared Confucius, Mencius, and Lao-tze. At the end of this dynasty China was divided into nine small states. Of these states only Han and Ts’in lasted for any length of time. The dynasty of Ts’in prevailed over the other states.—The fourth or Ts’in dynasty, dating from 249 », c, and comprising four sovereigns, was founded by Chwan Siang-wang, who reigned but three years. His son, Prince Cheng (246), in the twenty-sixth year of his reign assumed the title of Shi Hwang-ti (first universal emperor), the sovereign having been hitherto styled Wang. Shi Hwang-ti may be considered as having consolidated China, doing away with the old feudal states, and dividing the empire into thirty-six kiun. To stop the incursions of the Hiung-nu he built the Great Wall of China (Wan-li-ch’ang-ch’eng, or wall 10,000 lis long), which extends from Chi-li to Kan-su. The three principal passes through the Great Wall are the Shan-hai-kwan Pass, at the eastern extremity, the Chang-kia-k’ou (Kalgan) Pass, and the Kia-yu Pass at the extreme west. Shi Hwang-ti ordered all books to be burnt, to suppress all traces of former dynasties. —His house was short-lived, and Liu-pang, Prince of Han, under the dynastic title of Kao-ti or Kao Tsu, founded the fifth or Han dynasty (206 n. ¢.), which comprised twenty-five sovereigns. This was a period of reconstruction. The classics were collected again; Buddhist works were introduced into the empire; relations were begun with the Roman Empire; the penal code was compiled; and examinations established. In a. p. 25 Kwang Wu-ti (Kien-wu) transferred the capital from Ch’ang-ngan to Lo-yang, and the dynasty called the Former Han (Ts'ien Han) or Si Han (Western Han) became the Hou Han (After Han) or Tung Han (Eastern Han).—Sixth dynasty: In 220, under the reign of Chao Lieh-ti, the empire was divided into three kingdoms (San-kwo-ch’).—The three dynasties include: (1) the Minor Han in Shu (Sze-ch’wan); (2) the Wei, at Lo-yang; and (3) the Wu at Kien-kang (Nan-king). General Se Ma-shao having subjugated China, his son under the title of Wu-ti founded at Lo-yang the Western Tsin (265). —The eighth dynasty, which became the eastern Tsin (317), or ninth dynasty, when the capital was removed to Nan-king. These Tsin dynasties comprised fifteen sovereigns. Emperor Kung Ti having been killed by Liu Yu, the murderer established at Nan-king the Sung dynasty (420).
This is the “period of division between North and South’? (Nan Pe Ch’ao), and there were various dynasties: the Sung (420) at Hang-chou; the Ts’i, at Nan-king, the Liang, the Ch’én, the Northern Wei (House of Toba, 386-532 at Ta-tung and later at Lo-yang), the Western Wei, Eastern Wei (end of dynasty, 550), the Northern Ts’i, and Northern Chou. Finally, the minister Yang-kien restored order, destroyed the Ch’én (583), and under the name of Wen-ti founded at Ch’ang-ngan the Sui dynasty (590), which comprised three kings. In618 Kung Ti'T’ung was deposed ie Li Yuan, who established at Ch’ang-ngan (Shensi) the great dynasty of T’ang (620-907), comprising twenty sovereigns, restored order, and gave to the empire a period of unrivalled prosperity. The Empress Wu-hou (684-705) who usurped the government, under Jui Tsung, was followed by a long series of weak princes, which led to the fall of this once brilliant dynasty. Then came the period of anarchy and civil wars called Wu-tai (five generations) or Ten States: Posterior Liang (907-21) at Lo-yang;,.Pos-terior T’ang (923-34), at Lo-yang; Posterior Tsin (936-44), at Pien-liang (K’ai-feng); Posterior Han (947-48), at Pien-liang; Posterior Chou (951-60), at Pai-liang. TV inally, after the death of Kung-ti, Chao Kwang-in was proclaimed emperor, and founded the Sung dynasty (960-1280), which comprised eighteen sovereigns. The Sung were attacked by the Eastern Tatars or K’itans of Tungusic (Tatar) origin, who founded in Northern China a dynasty, under Ye-liu A-pao-ki (907), which assumed in 937 the dynastic title of Liao. The capital of the Liao was at first Liao-yang, in Liao-tung, and was transferred by A-pao-ki to ,Yen-king (Peking). They were expelled by another Tungusic tribe, the Ju-chen or Niu-chen (1125), and retired to Kasgaria, where they created the empire of Kara-k’itai or Si-liao from the territory of the Kara-khanides; the Niu-chen, at first vassals of Korea, became independent under Hien-phu. Their chief, Aguda (O-ko-ta), founded the Kin dynasty (1113). His successor compelled the Sung to leave their capital K’ai-feng, and their emperor Kao Tsung retired to Hang-chou, called Lin-ngan (1129). China was then divided into two empires. The northern, or Kin, with the capital at Yen-king (Peking) was Cathay; the southern was the Nan-sung. The latter was also known as Manzi (Man-tze). The Mongols destroyed both empires, the Kin in 1234, and the Sung in 1280.
The Mongol or Yuen dynasty (1280-1368) comprised ten sovereigns. Jenghiz, the first great Khan, established his capital at Karakorum (Ho-lin); he died 18 Aug., 1227. His successors were Ogotai, Cuyuk (1246), Mangku (1251), Kublai (1260). The first real Chinese emperor of the dynasty (1280) was Kublai, known also under the names of Chung T’ung and Che-yuan. He transferred his capital to Cambalue (Peking) and undertook an unsuccessful war against Japan, but was more fortunate against Mien (Burma). This is the period of successful Catholic missionaries, such as John of Montecorvino, and of great travellers like Marco Polo. In 1356, Chu, a Buddhist monk, rebelled, took Nan-king (1356), and under the title of Hung Wu founded the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), which included sixteen sovereigns. The third emperor, Yung-lo, transferred the capital from Nan-king to Peking. In 1514 the Portuguese arrived in China. The weakness of the last Ming emperors caused rebellions. One of the rebel chiefs, Li Tze-ch’ing, who had subjugated Ho-nan and Shen-si, captured Peking, and Emperor Ts’ung Chéng hanged himself in despair (1643). But the faithful general, Wu San-kwei, who was at the head of the imperial troops in Liao-tung, called the Manchus to the rescue. For many years the Tatars had threatened the empire. Their chief, Ts’ung Teh, son of T’ien Ming, defeated Li. Shun Che, the son of Ts’ung Teh, entered Peking and founded the Ts’ing dynasty, the dynasty now reigning over China. Shun Che, the first emperor, was succeeded in 1662 by his son, the illustrious K’ang-hi, who after a short minority took charge of the empire. He had many struggles to sustain in Fu-kien and Formosa against Koxinga, the rebellious Wu San-kwei, and the Kalmuks (Eleuths). Arts and letters were prosperous during this reign. In 1716 K’ang-hi published the celebrated dictionary “ K’ang-hi Tze-tien”, including 44,449 characters, classed under 214 radicals. K'ang-hi died 20 Dec., 1722, and was succeeded by his fourth son, Yung Cheng (1723-36), who persecuted the Christians. The fourth emperor, K’ien Lung (1736-96), son of Yung Chéng, annexed T’ien shan (1759), carried on an unsuccessful war against the Burmese, subjugated the Miao-tze (1775), and established Chinese power in Tibet. He abdicated on 8 Feb., 1796, in favour of his son, Kia K’ing, and died 7 Feb., 1799. Kia K'ing's reign (1796-1820) was marked by internal troubles; the members of the secret society of Pei Lien-kiao seized the imperial palace at Peking, 18 July, 1813. Kia K’ing died 2 Sept., 1820, and was succeeded by Tao Kwang (1821-51), during whose’ reign began the T’ai P’ing rebellion. This reign and the following, those of Hien Fung (1851-61), T’ung Che (1861-75), and Kwang Siu (b. 15 Aug., 1871), will be treated in the section on the foreign relations of China. found China in this passage of Isaias (A. V., xlix, 12): “these from the land of Sinim”. Ptolemy divides Eastern Asia into the country of Sine and Serice, north of Sinae, with its chief city Sera. Strabo, Virgil, Horace, Pomponius Mela, Pliny, and Ammianus Marcellinus, speak of the Seres, and they are mentioned by Florus among the nations which sent special embassies to Rome at the time of Augustus. The Chinese called the eastern part of the Roman Empire (Syria, Egypt, and Asia Minor) Ja Ts'in, Fulin during the Middle Ages. The monk Cosmas had a correct idea of the position of China (sixth century), The Byzantine writer, Theophylactus Simocatta (seventh century), gives an account of China under the name Taugas. There is a Chinese record of a Roman embassy in A. p. 166. The sea voyages of Arabs and the pilgrimages of Chinese Buddhists to India have thrown considerable light on the geography of Asia during the Middle Ages.
The voyage of Vasco da Gama (1497) and the eapture of Malacca by Albuquerque opened the Far Hast to the Portuguese, who arrived at Canton in 1514; Perestrello came in 1516; Fernfio Perez de Andrade followed in 1517 with Thomas Pires, but the misconduct of Simon de Andrade caused the expulsion of the Portuguese from Canton (1521) and the de-—
Looxine East ALone THe Great WALL struction of the fleet of Coutinho (1522); the Portuguese establishments of Liampo (1545) and Changchou (1549) were completely destroyed, and the inhabitants massacred. Finally, the Portuguese settled on the island of Hiang-shan at Macao, either in 1558 or in 1557. The Dutch commander, Cornelis Reyersz, took the Pescadore Islands in 1624; but after an agreement made with the Chinese (19 Feb., 1625), Martin Sonk, the governor, transferred the Dutch colony to Tai-wan (Formosa), where it was captured by the Chinese pirate, Koxinga (1661). The capture in 1592 of the Portuguese carrack, Madre de Dios, gave the English the secret of the Wast-Indian Trade. In 1596 three ships, the Bear, the Bear’s Whelp, and the Benjamin, under the command of Benjamin Wood, were fitted out at the expense of Robert. Dudley, and Queen Elizabeth wrote a letter (16 July) to the Emperor of China in favour of the London merchants Richard Allen and Thomas Broomfield. The expedition, however, never reached China. The first English vessel that visited China reached there by accident. It was the Unicorn which, going from Bantam to Japan, was cast by a storm on the coast,of Macao at the end of June, 1620. In 1634 Captain Weddell explored the Canton River. The first English Company organized for the purpose of trading with India, commonly called the “Old Company”, was incorporated by Queen Elizabeth, 31 Dec., 1600, under the title of “The Governour and Company of Merchants of London trading into the Hast Indies”. The “English Company (or General Society) trading to the East Indies” also called the “New Company” was incorporated by William III, 5 Sept., 1698, and the two were amalgamated in 1708-9 by Queen Anne, under the title of “The United Company of Merchants of England trading to the Hast Indies”, commonly known as “the Honourable East India Company”.
The Russians crossed the Ural Mountains in the middle of the sixteenth century under Ivan IV, and subjugated Siberia; from the Lena River they passed, in 1642, into the basin of the Amur. Stepanof, one of their chiefs, met the Chinese for the first time in 1654, when exploring the Sungari River. After withstanding two sieges of their principal fort, Albasin, the Russians signed a treaty with the Chinese at Nerchinsk (27 Aug., 1689), which destroyed their influence in the region of Amur, and from which they did not recover until the middle of the nineteenth century. In 1727 Count Sava Vladislavitch signed a treaty regulating the inland trade between the two countries.
In 1660 the French organized a “Compagnie de Chine” which in 1664 was amalgamated with the “Compagnie des Indes”, which gave up its China privileges in 1697-98 to “Compagnie Jourdan, la Coulange et C'e”, which made Canton a trading centre. New companies were organized for the commerce of China in October, 1705, and November, 1712. Finally, in 1719, all the companies were merged into the “Compagnie des Indes”, whose privilege was suspended in 1769, and which was finally dissolved 6 April, 1770. A new “Compagnie des Indes” was incorporated 14 April, 1785, and dissolved 3 April, 1790. A French consulate was established at Canton 3 Feb., 1776. The Danes had two companies organized in 1612 and 1670. Austria was represented by the Ostend Company, incorporated 17 Dec., 1722, and the Triest Company. Prussia had the Emden Company. In 1627 a Swedish company was organized; in 1655 Nils Matson Kidping visited China. On 14 June, 1731 charter was granted by King Frederick of Sweden to a company organized at Gothenburg. The first American commercial expedition to China was undertaken by the Empress of China, a vessel commanded by John Green, which sailed from New York for Canton, 22 Feb., 1784.
Trading was carried on at Canton through privileged merchants called Hong merchants, whose council, called Co-hong, was incorporated in 1720. Their number varied, but never exceeded thirteen. The foreign merchants traded in thirteen hongs, or factories, extending about 300 feet: from the banks of the Pearl River, and about 1000 feet broad. The Hong merchants, hard pressed by the Hoppo, or custom mandarin, ran into debt with the foreign merchants. A visit of Commodore Anson (1742), a special mission of Captain Panton, even a transfer of business to another part of the empire, did not remedy the numerous grievances of Europeans, who were not allowed to reside permanently at Canton, but were compelled to retire to Macao when business was done.- The English sent an embassy, headed by Lord Macartney, in the Lion and the Hindostan. Macartney reached Peking, 21 Aug., 1793, but did not obtain permission for the English to trade at Chusan, Ning-po, and T’ien-tsin, or to have a warehouse at Peking for their goods. Macartney’s voyage cost £80,000 (about $380,000), but was without result. Still less successful was the embassy of Lord Amherst (1816). Lord Napier, who was sent on a special mission in 1833~4, died worn out by his negotiations. Grievances continued to increase year after year, until the destruction (June, 1839) of 20,283 chests of opium by Commissioner Lin brought matters to a climax.
On 9 June, 1840, a blockade of the Canton River was proclaimed by Admiral Sir John Gordon Bremer Ting-hai (Chusan) was captured, 7 July, 1841. Sir Henry Pottinger was now appointed plenipotentiary, and Sir William Parker commander-in-chief. Amoy was captured 27 August, Ning-po 13 Oct., 1841, Shanghai, 16 June, 1842, and the British squadron entered the Ta-kiang (Yang-tze). Finally a treaty of thirteen articles was signed at Nan-king by Pottinger and Ki-ying, 29 Aug., 1842, on board the Cornwallis. Canton, Amoy, Fu-chou, Ning-po, and Shanghai were to be opened to trade, and consuls appointed to reside at each of these cities. The island of Hong-Kong was ceded to Great Britain, and indemnities were paid: $6,000,000 for the opium seized, $12,000,000 for the expenses of war, and $3,000,000 for the debts of the Hong merchants, whose guild was abolished. The United States and France followed the example of Great Britain. A treaty was signed with the United States at Wanghia, near Macao, 3 July, 1844, by Caleb Gushing, and one with France by Théodose de Lagrené at Whampoa, 24 Oct., 1844. An agreement with Belgium was signed at Canton, 25 July, 1845, and a treaty with Norway and Sweden, 20 March, 1847. The Chusan Archipelago was surrendered to the Chinese in 1847 by Sir John F. Davis, governor of Hong-Kong. Hong-Kong had been declared a free port, 6 Feb., 1842 to the great damage of Macao.
The advantages, however, obtained through the Treaty of Nan-king were soon found insufficient. The murder of the French priest Chapdelaine in Kwang-si (26 Feb., 1856) and the seizure at Canton of the lorcha Arrow (8 Oct., 1856) by the Chinese furnished the pretext for a joint action of England and France against China. The bombardment of Canton (27-29 Oct., 1856), the great rebellion in India (May, 1857), the appointment of Lord Elgin and Baron Gros as envoys to China by the two belligerents, the capture of Canton (29 Dec., 1857) and of the Taku forts (20 May, 1858), are the chief events which preceded the signing of the English (26 June) and French (27 June, 1858) treaties of T’ien-tsin. These treaties permitted the appointment of French and English ambassadors to Peking, and allowed the Chinese a like privilege of appointing ambassadors at the Court of St. James and the Court of Paris, provided for the opening of the ports of New-chwang, Tang-chou (Che-fu), Tai-wan (Formosa), Chao-chou (Swatow), and Kiung-chou (Hai-nan), granted an indemnity of 2,000,000 taels for damages to the British and a like sum to both powers for war expenses, besides an indemnity to French subjects for the loss sustained through plunder, when Canton was taken, and guaranteed the punishment of the murderer of Father Chapdelaine.
On the 25th of June, 1859, the plenipotentiaries, Bruce and Bourboulon, who were on their way to Peking to have these treaties ratified, were fired upon by the Taku forts. A second war ensued. Elgin and Gros were appointed special envoys to China; Sir Hope Grant and Admiral Hope, General de Montauban and Admiral Charner were placed in command of the British and French land and naval forces. The forts of Taku were recaptured (21 Aug., 1860). The allies marched past T’ien-tsin, and, after withstanding a treacherous attack by the Chinese at Tung-chou (18 Sept., 1860), they forced a passage across the Pa-li-k’iao bridge (21 Sept.), and captured the Summer Palace (Yuan-ming-yuan), 6 Oct., which was plundered. Wan-shou-shan, another part of the imperial summer resort, was burnt by order of Lord Elgin (18 Oct.) on account of the barbarous treatment inflicted upon the European -prisoners taken in the dastardly attack at Tung-chou. The emperor fled to Shehol, and his brother, Prince Kung, who had remained at Peking, signed the Conventions of 24 and 25 Oct., 1860, with the allies. The indemnity was raised to 8,000,000 taels, and Kow-loon, opposite Hong-Kong, was ceded to England as a dependency of this island. A like indemnity was to be paid to France, and T’ien-tsin was to be opened to trade. Meanwhile a treaty had been made at T’ientsin with the United States (18 June, 1858), signed by William B. Reed, and one with Russia (13 June, 1858) signed by Admiral Putiatin, and another treaty was made with Russia at Peking (9-14 Nov., 1860), and signed by General Ignatiev. A still earlier treaty had been made with Russia at Aigun (16 May, 1858) and signed by Muraviev. The final result of these various treaties was a rectification of the frontier between Russia and China, the Amur and Usuri rivers forming the new boundary lines.
The wretched Hien Fung, who had replaced Taokwang in 1851, died 22 Aug., 1861, and was succeeded by his son T’ung-chi (b. 17 Nov., 1834), under the regency of the two dowager empresses, Tze-ngan and Tze-hi, and Prince Kung. With the help of foreigners, the American, Ward, the English general, Gordon, and the “Ever Victorious Army”, the French admiral Protet, Lebrethon, and others, the T’aip’ing rebels, who had captured Nan-king (19 March, 1853) and made a raid on T’ien-tsin, were expelled from Su-chou (4 Dec., 1863) and Nan-king (19 July, 1864), and their power completely destroyed. Treaties were signed with Prussia and the German States (T’ien-tsin, 2 Sept., 1861), Portugal (T’ien-tsin, 13 Aug., 1862), though not ratified, Denmark (T’ientsin, 13 July, 1863), Spain (T’ien-tsin, 10 Oct., 1864), Holland (T’ien-tsin, 6 Oct., 1863), Belgium (Peking, 2 Nov., 1865), Italy (26 Oct., 1866), and Austria (Peking, 2 Sept., 1869). A new convention, negotiated by the British minister, Sir Rutherford Alcock (Peking, 23 Oct., 1869), was not ratified by the British Government, In 1868 a special embassy headed by Anson Burlingame, formerly American Minister to Peking, was sent to the Western countries. They went first to the United States, and additional articles to the Treaty of 1858 were signed at Washington (28 July, 1868); thence they proceeded through Europe. Burlingame died at St. Petersburg. A few months afterwards news was received of the awful massacre of French and Russian subjects by the Chinese at T’ien-tsin, 21 June, 1870. A mission under Chung-hou was sent to Versailles to apologize for this. T’ung-chi married Oct., 1872, and being of age, received in audience the foreign envoys; Japan, France, Great Britain, Russia, the United States, and Holland were represented by their ministers, and Germany by an interpreter (29 June, 1873). Relations were strained between Japan and China, owing to an attack made by the aborigines of southern Formosa on the wrecked crew of a Luch’uan junk, and for a time war seemed inevitable. Through British intervention, however, satisfaction was obtained by Japan, and an agreement between the two Asiatic nations was signed at Peking, 31 Oct., 1874. T’ungchi died 12 Jan., 1875.
The situation in China at this time presented many difficulties. There were grave questions to be settled with England, Russia, and France. On 21 Feb., 1875, the English interpreter, A. R. Margary, was murdered at Manwyne (Yun-nan), and an attack was made on the British exploring party from Burma headed by Col. Horace A. Browne, which Margary had preceded. Protracted and knotty negotiations -conducted by the British minister, Thomas F. Wade, led to the conclusion of the convention signed at Che-fu, 13 Sept., 1876. According to this: regulations were to be framed for the frontier trade of Yun-nan; British officials were to be stationed at Ta-li, or some other suitable place in Yun-nan, for a period of five years; the Viceroy of India was given permission to send a mission to this province; the indemnity was fixed at 200,000 taels; China was to establish missions and consulates abroad; the ports of I-ch’ang, Wu-hu, Wen-chou, and Pak-hoi were to be opened to trade; British officers might be sent to Ch’ung-k’ing, which was to be opened to trade when steamers succeeded in ascending the river. A special mission, including the Hon. T. G. Grosvenor, A. Davenport, and E. C. Baber, was sent to Yun-nan to witness the trial and the punishment of the murderers of Margary. On 28 August, 1875, Kwo Sung-tao was appointed envoy extraordinary to the Court of St. James.
The Russians, who had signed a treaty with China, 25 July, 1851, at Kuldja, took possession of this region (4 July, 1871), during the rebellion of Yakub. When the Mohammedan rising was crushed by Tso Tsung-tang (1877-78), China claimed the territory occupied temporarily by Russia. A special Chinese mission with Ch’ung-hou as chief was sent to Russia and concluded a treaty at Livadia (Oct., 1879). The contested territory was ceded, together with the Muzart Pass, to Russia, and great inland commercial facilities were also granted to the Muscovite merchants. Ch’ung-hou was denounced by the censor, Chang Chi-tung, and sentenced to death; his treaty came to naught. It was a casus belli, but the intervention of England and France prevented the war. Tseng Ki-tze, the Chinese minister in Paris, was sent to St. Petersburg, where he signed a treaty restoring to China the greater part of the Ili and the Muzart Pass (12-24 Feb., 1881).
The third difficulty arose through the occupation of Tong-king by France. China interfered, as the suzerain power of Annam. A treaty was signed at T’ientsin by Commodore Fournier (11 May, 1884), but was soon followed by the Bac-lé affair (23 June, 1884), and hostilities were resumed. Admiral Courbet bombarded the Fu-chou arsenal (23 Aug., 1884); Ki-lung in northern Formosa was captured (1 Oct., 1884); the Pescadores were taken (29 March, 1885); finally the Billot-Campbell peace protocol, signed in Paris (4 April, 1885), was followed by a treaty signed at T’ien-tsin (9 June, 1885) by Patendétre, minister, a commercial convention (T’ien-tsin, 25 April, 1886) by Cogordan, minister, and an additional convention (26 June, 1887) under Constans, minister. France retained possession of Tong-king.
Emperor Kwang Siu became of age 7 Feb., 1887, and took control of the government 4 March, 1889. On 26 Feb., 1889, he married Ye-ho-na-la-shi, daughter of Kwei-siang.. The imperial audience took place 5 March, 1891. Fora long time matters had gone from bad to worse between China and Japan, Korea being the coveted prey of both nations. The murder of the Korean Kim-ok Kyum, a friend of the Japanese, by his countryman, Hung Tjung-wu, at Shanghai (28 March, 1894), and the attack made on the steamship Kow-shing by the Japanese at the mouth of the Ya-lu River (25 July, 1894) were the starting points of a war. The principal events during the course of this war were: the battle of Sei-kwan (29 July, 1894); a declaration of war (1 Aug.); a convention between Korea and Japan (26 Aug.); the battles of Ping-yang (16 Sept.), and the Ya-lu (17 Sept.); the capture of Port. Arthur (21 Noy.) and Wei-hai-wei (30 Jan., 1895) by the Japanese; the occupation of New-chwang by the Japanese (6 March); the landing of the Japanese at Formosa. The negotiations between Li Hungchang, who had been wounded by a fanatic Japanese, and Ito and Mutsu, resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki (17 April, 1895). The principal articles of this treaty were the cession of Liaotung, Formosa, and the Pescadores to the Japanese, an indemnity of 200,000,000 Kuping taels to be paid by China, the opening to Japanese trade of Sha-shi or Kin-chou (Hu-pe), Chung-k’ing, Su-chou, and Hang-chou, etc. On the interference of France, Russia and Germany, Liao-tung was retroceded to China by the convention of 8 Noy., 1905. Korea fell entirely into the hands of the Japanese. Ostensibly to obtain satisfaction for the murder of two missionaries, the Germans seized Kiao-chou Bay (Shan-tung) (14 Noy., 1897), which was granted to them on long lease (6 March, 1898). Following the example of Germany, Russia obtained a similar lease of Ta-lienwan and the adjacent waters (27 March, 1898); England, Wei-hai-wei (2 April, 1898); France, Kwangchou-wan (27 May, 1898). On 9 June the territory of Kow-loon ceded to Great Britain was extended to include Deep Bay and Mir’s Bay; moreover, various declarations stipulated the non-alienation by China of the Yang-tze valley (11 Feb., 1898), the provinces bordering on Tong-king (10 April, 1898), and Fu-kien (April, 1898). Prince Kung died 29 May, 1898.
From 10 June, 1898, until 20 Sept., 1898, when a coup d’état of Empress Tze-hi deprived Emperor Kwang Siu of all his power, he made a strong attempt to reform the administration of his empire with the assistance of K’ang Yu-wei and others. Then followed a terrible reaction, which culminated in the Boxer rebellion. This began in Shan-tung and extended to Chi-li, secretly fostered by the empress dowager and her camarilla, Prince Twan, and General Tung Fu-Siang. Everywhere missionaries were murdered. The German minister, Von Ketteler, was murdered (20 June); the legations at Peking were besieged by the troops and the infuriated mob. A relief column, under the command of the English admiral, Sir Edward Seymour, failed to reach the capital. The allied fleet captured the Taku forts (17 June, 1900). Finally a strong international dents. army entered Peking (14 Aug., 1900), relieving the legations and the Catholic cathedral (Pe-tang), while the emperor, the empress dowager, and the court fled to Si-ngan-fu (Shen-si). Peking was looted and left in ruins.
The negotiations were long and involved, and on their completion a final protocol was signed at Peking, 7 Sept., 1901, by the representatives of the ten foreign powers. The principal clauses included: a mission of reparation to Berlin and an expiatory monument to Baron von Ketteler on the spot where he was assassinated; the punishment of the principal authors of the outrage; the rehabilitation of officials executed for being favourable to foreigners; the suspension of official examinations for five years in all cities where foreigners had been massacred or illtreated; missions of reparation to Japan for the assassination of Sugiyama of the Japanese legation; expiatory monuments in cemeteries where foreign tombs had been desecrated; prohibition of the importation of arms; a total indemnity of 450,000,000 Haikwan taels (about $360,000,000), special quarters for the legations at Peking; the destruction of the forts of Taku; the reorganization of the foreign office. An imperial edict of 24 July, 1901, transformed the Tsung-li Yamen into a Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Wai-wu Pu), which takes precedence over the other ministries of State. Treaties were signed at Shanghai by China with Great Britain (5 Sept., 1902), with Japan (commercial, 8 Oct., 1903), and with the United States for the extension of commercial relations (8 Oct., 1903).
The great: victories gained by Japan over Russia and the signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth (23 Aug., 5 Sept., 1905), the various agreements signed by European nations with the victorious power, the tremendous effect produced on all Asiatic peoples by the triumph of one of them, the latent discontent in China, the delusive and superficial attempts at reform in the Middle Kingdom, leave to the future prospects which are anything but encouraging for the Western countries.
Customs.—The imperial maritime customs were started in Shanghai in 1854 when, the city being threatened by rebels, the collection of dues on foreign trade became impossible. Representatives of the three consuls from Great Britain, France, and the United States, were placed in charge of the custom service, which was inaugurated on 12 July, 1854. The American and the French delegates having retired in the course of years, the British delegate, Horatio N. Lay, remained in charge until he was superseded in Noy., 1863, as inspector general, by Robert Hart (b. 20 Feb., 1835, at Portadown, Ireland). The Shanghai system was extended to Canton (Oct., 1859) and afterwards to the other treaty ports. The importance of the service has grown with years and now includes also the postal service. It is divided into four departments: (1) revenue department (Indoor, Outdoor, and Coast staff), with 957 foreigners of various nationalities, the majority being British, and 4138 Chinese (1903); (2) marine department; (3) educational department; (4) postal department. An imperial decree of 9 May, 1905, placed at the head of the custom service two high mandarins.
At the end of 1906, 2096 localities were open to postal business, and in 1907 the number of articles dealt with increased to nearly 113 millions. The number of parcels reached 1,383,000, and money transactions taels 1,539,000. Moreover, there are some foreign (British, German, French, Japanese, American, Russian) postal agencies at some of the treaty ports. On 6 Nov., 1906, a new Chinese ministry was created, styled the Yu-ch’wan Pu (Board of Posts and Communications) with a president and two vice-presiTeLegrarH System.—In 1905 the Imperial Company had 379 stations throughout China, Manchuria, and Mongolia. Other companies are the Imperial German Telegraph Co., through Shanghai, Tsing-tao, and Che-fu; the French Telegraph Co., from Amoy to Tourane ; the Great Northern Telegraph Co., through Shanghai, Gutzlaff, Nagasaki, Vladivostock, Amoy, and Hong-Kong; the Eastern Extension, Australasia and China Telegraph Co., connecting Shanghai, Gutzlaff, Fu-chou, Hong-Kong, Indo-China, and the Philippines; the Deutsch-Niederlindische Telegraphengesellschaft, three cables connecting Yap (Carolines) and Shanghai, Menado (Celebes), and Guam (Mariannes); the Commercial Pacific Cable Co., connecting San Francisco, Honolulu, Midway, Guam, Manila, and Shanghai with a branch line between Guam and Yokohama; the Japanese Telegraph Co., connecting Sharp Peak (Fu-chou), Formosa, Ishigakishima, Naha, Oshima, Japan, and Korea.
Trade.—The revenue of the customs in 1906 was Haikwan taels 36,068,595 (1 Haikwan tael =$0.80, U.S.), as against Haikwan taels 22,742,104 in 1897. It included import duties, taels 16,100,954; export duties tls. 9,825,706; coast trade duties, tls. 2,208,192; tonnage dues, tls. 1,326,619; transit dues incoming, tls. 1,831,934; transit dues outgoing, tls. 445,167; opium Likin, tls. 4,330,083. The gross value of the foreign trade was Hk. tls. 682,767,231 in 1906, as against Hk. tls. 385,142,721 in 1897, the net value being Hk. tls. 646,726,821, as against tls. 366,329,983 in 1897. The value of the direct trade: Continent of Europe (Russia excepted), tls. 82,677,826; Russian European ports, tls. 5,757,036; Russia and Siberia by land frontier, tls. 2,565,904; Russia, Pacific ports, tls. 11,018,087; Korea, tls., 1,811,037; Japan (including Formosa), tls. 94,357,287; Philippine Islands, tls. 2,536,704; Canada, tls. 5,192,127; United States, including Hawaii, tls. 70,107,657; Mexico and Central America (including Panama), tls. 54,142; South America, tls. 27,309; Australia, New Zealand, etc., tls. 1,014,469; South Africa (including Mauritius), tls. 58,136, a total of tls. 646,726,821 (net imports, tls. 410,270,082; exports, tls. 236,456,739). The chief imports are: opium, tls.
32,285,377 (weighing 54,225 piculs); cotton goods, tls. 152,727,845; woollen and cotton mixtures, tls. 2,269,812; woollen goods, tls. 4,382,958; miscellaneous piece goods, tls. 3,062,711; copper, iron, steel, etc., tls. 17,289,855; cigarettes, tls. 5,846,781; cigars, tls. 408,081; fish and fishery products, tls. 8,125,721; flour, tls. 6,295,753; matches, tls. 5,139,808; machinery, tls. 5,730,221; medicines, tls. 2,137,134, etc. The chief exports are: beancake, tls. 7,064,108; beans, tls. 3,158,394; bristles, tls. 2,756,262; camphor, tls. 1,310,791; cattle, tls. 3,357,924; raw cotton, tls. 11,631,138; fire-crackers, tls. 3,585,733; matting, tls. 3,064,458; medicines, tls. 2,430,322; raw white silk, tls. 16,485,481; steam filature raw white silk, tls. 29,614,449; yellow silk, tls. 3,214,873; wild silk, tls. 6,372,970; silk cocoons, tls. 1,089,872; silk waste, tls. 3,208,162; silk cocoons, refuse, tls. 450,254; silk piece goods, tls. 8,474,750; Shantung pongees, tls. 1,279,104; silk products, unclassed, tls., 1,105,610; undressed skins and hides of cows and buffalos, tls. 5,491,908; of horses, asses, and mules, tls. 5,129; of goats, tls. 4,382,138; sheep, tls. 476,567; unclassed, tls. 33,509; straw braid, tls. 8,650,861; vegetable tallow, tls. 1,057,401; black tea, tls. 12,252,518; green tea, tls. 7,645,121; black brick tea, tls. 4,392,064; green brick tea, tls. 2,083,641; tea tablet, tls. 254,958; tea dust, tls. 1028; sheep’s wool, tls. 4,847,015; chinaware, tls. 1,579,204, etc. In 1906, 87,949 steamers (70,117,628 tons), and 120,598 sailing vessels (5,702,260 tons), in all 208,547 vessels (75,819,888 tons) entered and cleared Chinese ports, of which Chinese shipping vessels (foreign type) numbered 45,847 (12,212,373 tons), Chinese junks 93,457 (3,974,378 tons), British 28,192 (33,450,560 tons), Japanese 25,108 (11,376,430 tons), French 5514 (8,125,749 tons), German 6315 (7,477,518 tons), American 582 (1,351,200 tons), Norwegian 1978 (1,616,460 tons), Portuguese 976 (183,908 tons), Danish 108 (172,826 tons), Swedish 75 (65,992 tons), etc.
Treaty Ports.—l. Northern Ports:(1) New-chwang, Sheng-king province, Manchuria, in accordance with British Treaty of T’ien-tsin, 1858; custom office opened 9 May, 1864; Chinese population 74,000. (2) Ching-wang-tao, Chi-li, in accordance with imperial decree, 31 March, 1898; opened 15 Dec., 1901; Chinese population, 5,000. (3) T’ien-tsin, Chi-li, in accordance with British and French Peking Conventions, 1860, opened May, 1861; Chinese population, 750,000. (4) Che-fu, Shan-tung, in accordance with British and French treaties of T’ien-tsin, 1858; opened March, 1862; Chinese population, 100,000. (5) Kiao-chou, Shan-tung, German Convention, 6 March, 1898; opened 1 July, 1899. II. Yang-tze Ports: (6) Ch’ung-k’ing, Sze-ch’wan; opened Noy., 1890; Chinese population, 702,000. (7) I-ch’ang, Hu-pe, in accordance with Che-fu Convention, 1876; opened 1 April, 1877; Chinese population, 50,000. (8) Sha-shi, Hu-pe, Treaty of Shimoneseki, 1895; opened 1 Oct., 1896; Chinese population, 85,000. (9) Changsha, Hu-nan; opened 1 July, 1904; Chinese population, 230,000. (10) Yo-chou, Hu-nan, imperial decree of 31 March, 1898; opened 13 Nov., 1899; Chinese population, 20,000. (11) Han-kou, Hu-pe, provincial regulations, 1861; opened Jan., 1862; Chinese population, 530,000. (12) Kiu-kiang, Kiangsi; same regulations; opened Jan., 1862; Chinese population, 36,000. (13) Wu-hu, Ngan-hwei, Che-fu Convention, 1876; opened 1 April, 1877; Chinese population, 123,000. (14) Nan-king, Kiang-su, French Treaty of T’ien-tsin, 1858; opened 1 May, 1899; Chinese population, 261,000. (15) Chin-kiang, Kiang-su, British Treaty, 1858; opened April, 1861; Chinese population, 170,000. III. Central Ports: (16) Shanghai, Kiang-su, Nan-king Treaty, 1842; opened officially 17 Nov., 1843; Chinese population, 651,000. (17) Su-chou, Kiang-su, Shimon686 oseki Treaty; opened 26 Sept., 1896; Chinese population, 500,000. (18) Hang-chou, Che-kiang, Shimonoseki Treaty; opened 26 Sept., 1896; Chinese population, 350,000. (19) Ning-po, Che-kiang, Nanking Treaty, 1842; opened May, 1861; Chinese population, 260,000. (20) Wen-chou, Che-kiang, Che-fu Convention, 1876; opened April, 1877; Chinese population, 80,000. IV. South Coast Ports: (21) San-tuao, Fu-kien, imperial decree of 31 March, 1898; opened 1 May, 1899; Chinese population, 8000. (22) Fuchou, Fu-kien, Nan-king Treaty, 1842; opened July, 1861; Chinese population, 624,000. (23) Amoy, Fu-kien, Nan-king Treaty, 1842; opened April, 1862; Chinese population, 114,000. (24) Swatow, Kwang-tung, English, French, and American Treaties of T’ien-tsin, 1858; opened Jan., 1860; Chinese population, 65,000. (25) Canton, Kwang-tung, Nanking Treaty, 1842; opened Oct., 1859; Chinese population, 900,000. (26) Kow-loon, Kwang-tung; opened April, 1887; (27) Lappa, Kwang-tung; opened 27 June, 1871; (28) Kong-moon, Kwang-tung; opened 7 March, 1904; Chinese population, 55,000. (29) San-shui, Kwang-tung, Anglo-Chinese Convention, 4 Feb., 1897; opened 4 June, 1897; Chinese population, 5000. (30) Wu-chou, Kwang-si, same convention; opened 4 June, 1897; Chinese population, 59,000. (31) Kiung-chou (Hoi-hou), Hai-nan, Kwangtung, French and English Treaties of T’ien-tsin, 1858; opened April, 1876; Chinese population, 38,000. (82) Pak-hoi, Kwang-tung, Che-fu Convention, 1876; opened April, 1877; Chinese population, 20,000. V. Frontier Ports: (33) Lung-chou, Kwangsi, French Treaty, 26 June, 1887; opened 1 June, 1899; Chinese population, 12,000. (34) Meng-tze, Yun-nan, French Treaty, 1887; opened 30 April, 1889; Chinese population, 15,000. (85) Sze-mao, Yun-nan, French Convention, 1895; British, 1896; opened 2 Jan., 1897; Chinese population, 15,000. (36) Teng-yueh or Momein, Yun-nan, Convention of 4 Feb., 1897; opened 8 May, 1902; Chinese population, 10,000. (37) Ya-tung, Tibet; opened 1 May, 1894.
As yet, Nan-ning, Kwang-si, opened by imperial decree, 3 Feb., 1899, has not a custom office. According to the customs statistics (1906), 6,917,000 Chinese inhabit the treaty ports. The foreign population: include 1837 firms and 38,597 persons (Americans 3447, British 9256, Japanese 15,548, French 2189, Germans 1939, Portuguese 3184, Italians 786, Spaniards 389, Belgians 297, Austrians 236, Russians 273, Danes 209, Dutch 225, Brazilians 16, Koreans 47, Norwegians 185, Swedes 135, subjects of non-treaty powers 236).
Railways.—The first railroad was built in 1876, from Wu-sung to Shanghai, but was purchased by the Chinese and taken by them to Formosa in 1877, The following is a list of the railways completed and under construction at the end of 1906: in Manchuria (1) from Irkutsk through Manchuria, Harbin, Pogranichaya to Vladivostock, 925 miles; (2) from Harbin to Kwang-cheng-tze (not completed), 147 miles; (3) from Kwang-cheng-tze through Mukden, Sinmin-fu, Liao-yang, New-chwang, Talien, to Port Arthur, 481 miles (in addition to 36 miles under construction); (4) from Mukden to Antung (narrow gauge), 187 miles under construction; (5) from Kowpangtze to Sin-min-fu, 70 miles. Chi-liand Manchuria: Peking through T’ien-tsin, Shan-hai-kwan, Kowpang-tze, to New-chwang, 600 miles. Chi-li: Peking to Tung-chou, 13 miles. Chi-li and Mongolia: Peking through Nan-kou, to Kalgan, 33 miles (in addition to 92 miles under construction). , Chi-li, Ho-nan, and Hu-pe: Peking, through Pao-ting-fu, Cheng-ting, Weihwei, Cheng-chou to Han-kou, 754 miles. Ho-nan: Tao-kou, through Wei-hwei, to Ching-hwa, 93 miles. Chi-li and Shan-si: Cheng-ting to Tai-yuan-fu, 87 miles (in addition to 68 under construction). Ho-nan:
Kai-feng, through Cheng-chou, to Ho-nan-fu, 41 miles (in addition to 75 miles under construction). Shan‘su. tung: Tsing-chou, through Tsi-nan, to Po-shan, 270 miles; Hwang-tai-kiao to Lo-kou, 4 miles. Kiang-su: Shanghai, through Su-chou, Chin-kiang, to Nan-king, 90 miles (in addition to 113 miles under construction). Che-kiang: Hang-chou City to Hang-chou Settlement, 3 miles, under construction. In Kiang-si and Hunan: Yuen-chou to Shui-chou, 64 miles. Kwang-tung: Swatow to Chao-chou-fu, 25 miles; Kung-yik through Sun-ning, to Sam-ka-hoi, 55 miles under construction; Canton to Sam-shui, 30 miles. Kwang-tung, Hu-nan, and Hu-pe: Canton, through Chang-sha, to Han-kou, 720 miles. Yun-nan: Ho-kou, through Meng-tze to Yun-nan-fu, 19 miles (in addition to 273 under construction).
Projected Railways—Han-kou to Ch’eng-tu via Ch’ung-k’ing; Su-chou to Hang-chou and Ning-po; Chang-sha to Chenn-chou-fu; Shanghai to Kia-sing; Amoy to Yen-ping, Tsean-chou-fu, Fu-chou-fu; Singan-fu to Tung-kwan (Shen-si) ; Tai-yuan-fu to Pingyang-fu (Shan-si); Tse-chou to Tao-kou; Ta-tung-fu to Kalgan; T’ien-tsin to Te-chou and Chin-kiang; Canton to Kow-loon; Wu-hu to Kwang-te-chou (Ngan-hwei); Canton to Amoy; Canton to Kan-chou (Kiang-si) ; Chenn-chou-fu to Chang-te (Northern Hunan); Heng-chou-fu to Yung-chou-fu (Hu-nan); Tung-kwan to Pu-chou-fu (Shen-si, Shan-si); Kiukiang to Nan-chang (Kiang-si); Sin-ning to Yungmilion. kiang (Kwang-tung); Kalgan to Kulun (Mongolia); Lan-chou-fu to Ili (Sin-kiang).
WEIGHTS AND Mrasures.—Measures of length: one foot (chih), 142 inches = 10 tsun; 1 tsun = 10 fen; 10 feet = 1 chang; 10 chang = 1 yu. One li = 360 kung or 867 yards. The land measures are the mao (mow) = 240 pu or 26.73 sq. ft.; 100 mao = one k’ing or 16.7 acres. The t’ou = 10 cheng or 2.269 gallons. Measures of weight: The tan or picul = 100 kin or catties = 1334 lbs.; 1 kin (pound or catty) = 16 taels or 14 lb.; 1 tael (ounce or liang) = 24 chou or 14 oz.; 1 liang = 10 tsien; 1 tsien = 10 fen; 1 fen = 10 li. Money: 1 tael or liang = 10 tsien (mace); 1 mace = 10 fen (candareen); 1 candareen = 10 li or cash (in French sapeque). The tael is a weight of silver which varies considerably in value; in 1906 the Haikwan tael, in which the custom reyenues and all values are given, was equivalent to 2.46 Indian rupees, 1.60 Japanese yen, Mexican $1.54, English 3s. 34d., U. S. $0.80. Chinese lump silver, called sycee (fine silk), is made into ingots resembling in shape a shoe. The silver experts are called shroff.
CALENDAR.—The common year has twelve lunar months. In a period of 19 years there are seven intercalary years, each of 13 months. Years are reckoned either from the beginning of the reign of the emperor, or from their place in the cycle of 60 years. The sexagenary cycle was devised by Ta-nao, Minister of Hwang-ti, the sixty-first year of whose reign (2637 B. c.) was taken for the first cyclical sign. A common civil year consists of 354 or 355 days, and the intercalary year of from 383 to 385 days. Since the time of Emperor K’ang-hi the day is divided into 96 k’o, or quarters, sub-divided into 15 jen, or minutes, the minute into 60 miao, or seconds, each second into 60 wet; these in turn are divided into 12 shih, subdivided into 2 siao-shi (ch’u and cheng).
Social Lire.—The family name of a Chinaman is sing. China is called Pe-kia-sing, the “hundred families”. The prenomen is ming-tze; the Christian name sheng-ming; the name given to children by parents ndi-ming; the official name kwan-ming. An emperor, besides his personal name, has a title as a ruler nien-hao, and a dynastic title or posthumous name miao-hao; some of the emperors have had several nien-hao. Thus Hiwan-yi was the personal name of the emperor, whose mien-hao poe) was K’ang-hi, and his miao-hao was Sheng
The marriage ceremonies include the visit to the prospective bride’s father and brother by an intermediary (mei-jin) sent by the prospective bridegroom’s father and brother to inquire her name, which is to be examined by the horoscope; if the horoscope be auspicious, the me?-jin is sent to make an offer of marriage which, if accepted, is confirmed in writing; presents are sent to the parents of the bride; a lucky day is selected for the wedding, and the bridegroom sends some of his friends to bring the bride to his house. The seven valid grounds for divorce are: talkativeness, wantonness, theft, barrenness, disobedience to a husband’s parents, jealousy, and inveterate infirmity; to these infidelity has been added.
The burial ceremonies are more or less varied, short or long according to the wealth of the deceased, and the dead are buried in graves. The graves of the Ming emperors at Nan-king and in Mongolia are famous. The emperors of the present dynasty are buried in Chi-li in mausoleums called T'ung-ling and Si-ling; their ancestors rest at Mukden. The period of mourning for a father is three years, which is reduced in practice to twenty-seven months. White is the mourning colour in China; it is blue for the emperor, and the seals are inked blue instead of verThe main food is rice (fan), and as it does not grow in Northern China, great quantities are transported from the southern provinces and Cochin-China. Among Chinese delicacies are birds’ nests (Yen-wo), nests of the collocalia brevirostris, which are made of a sea-weed (gelidium); dried shark’s fins, black or white (pe-yu-chi or he-yu-chi); béche-de-mer (Haisan); preserved eggs (pi-tan, sung-hwa-tan). The Chinese use a great deal of oil (hiang-yw) extracted from the sesamum orientale, the Arachis hypogea, or the Brassica sinensis. The Chinese drink tea (cha) and fermented liquors (sam-shoo and others). They eat with small wooden or ivory sticks, called chopsticks (kwai-tze); they know the use of the fork (cha-tze), the spoon (piao-keng), and the knife (tao).
Festivals.—The first day of the first moon (Y wantan) or New Year’s Day, is the occasion of great festivity. Houses are decorated with paper flowers and small strips of gilt and red paper; debts are paid, and accounts are settled. The first full moon of the year is the Feast of Lanterns (Shang-yuan-tsieh), when lanterns of various forms, colours, and materials are suspended before each door. The fifth day of the fifth moon is the Feast of the Dragon’s Boats (T’ien-chung-sieh), instituted in the memory of the statesman K’iu Yuan, who drowned himself in the river Mi-lo, an affluent of the Tung-ting lake, in the fourth century B.c. Other festivals are those of the village gods (T’u-ti-tan), of the god of literature (Wench’ang-tan), of Sakyamuni, Kwan-yn, Confucius, etc.
On 9 Oct., 1907, an imperial edict was issued in Peking, ordering the Board of Revenues and Commerce forthwith to introduce a uniform system of weights and measures throughout the Chinese Kmpire, the standards to be fixed within six months.
General.—For a complete bibliography see Cordier, Bibliotheca Sinica. Dict. bibliog. des ouvrages relatifs & U empire chinois (Paris, 1904-08); Kichard, Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire and Dependencies, tr. KENNELLY (Shanghai, 1908). Dr Menpoga, Hist. de las cosas mas notables . . . del gran Reyno de la China (Rome, 1585); Semepo, Imperio de la China (Madrid, 1642); Magarntuans, Nouv. relation de la Chine (Paris, 1688); Le Comrr, Nouv. mémoires sur l'état -présent de la Chine (Paris, 1696); Du Haupn, Descrip. géog. ... de l’empire de la Chine (Paris, 1735); Mémoires concernant Uhistoire, les sciences, les arts . . . . des chinots (Paris, 1776— 1814); Grostmr, Descrip. générale de la Chine (Paris, 1818-20) ; Davis, The Chinese (London, 1857); Wiuutams, The Middle Kingdom (London, 1883); Ricursormn, China (Berlin, 1877); RAY, China: A History of the Laws, Manners, etc. (1878); Mayers, The Chinese Government (Shanghai, 1878); Ipmm, Treaties between the Empire of China and Foreign Powers (Shanghai, 1877); Giles, A Glossary of References on Subjects Connected with the Far East (Hong-Kong, 1886); Yuin, Hobson-Jobson (London, 1886).
Tue Chinese People AND Language.—LEGENDRE, Deux années au Setchowen (Paris, 1906, xliv, 433-74); Smrru, Chinese Characteristics (New York, 1903); Doueuas, Society in China (London, 18 ; Barn, Les chinois chez eux (Paris, 1900); K1one, Politesse chinoise (Shanghai, 1906); Hoane, Le mariage chinois (Shanghai, 1898); Viau, L’ esprit et le cewr chez les Lolos in Annales des Missions-Etrangéres (Paris, 1905); 129 sq.; CAVALERIE, Chez les Chouy-kia, Ibid. (1889), 101-07; Ide, Les Miaotse et les Tchongkia, Ibid. (1904), 332-57; Lrerarn, Les A-Djé et les LouOu, Ibid. (1904), 74 sq.; Jeremiassen, Lot Aborigines of Hainan and their Speech in China Rev., XX, 296-305; Gruman, The Aborigines of Hainan, Ibid., XXV, 247-51; Scumrrer, The Lois or Aborigines of Hainan in East of Asia Magazine (1904), III, 46-50; Colquhoun and Srpwart-LockHart, The Aborigines of Formosa in China Review, XIII, 200-07; Warrrrs, Essays on the Chinese Language (Shanghai, 1889); Williams, Syllabic Dictionary of the Chinese Language (Shanghai); VouPICELLI, Chinese Phonology (Shanghai, 1896); M6LLENDORF, Classification of the Chinese Dialects (Shanghai, 1896); DoucLAs, China (London, 1882), xviii, xix, 330-400; Dx Harlez, Le Yih-king (Paris, 1890); Leaer, The Chinese Classics with Critical and Exegetical Notes (Oxford, 1893); JENNINGS, The Shi-king, or Old Poetry Classic of the Chinese (London, 1891); Zorro, Cursus Litterature Sinice (Shanghai, 1879—); Piry, Manuel de la langue Mandarine (Shanghai, 1895); Couvreur, Dict. classique de la langue chinoise (Ho-kien-fu, 1904); Inmm, ane ye aE in French, English and Chinese (Ho-kienfu, 190!
Government.—Hoane, Mélanges sur Vadministration: Variétés Sinologiques (Shanghai, 1902); Douglas, Society in China (London, 1895), i, 1-31, ii, 32-63; Boulter, A Short History of China (London, 1893), xxii, 356-73; Colquhoun, China in Transformation (London, 1898), vii, 167-98; Parker, China, her History, Diplomacy and Commerce (London, 1901), viii, 161-81; Ide, China Past and Present (London, 1903), IV, 128-58, VI, 223-52; Smrru, China from Within (London, 1901), ii, 7-16, vi, 45-59; Jernican, China's Business Methods and Policy (Shanghai, 1904); Ide, China in Law and Commerce (New York, 1905); Leroy-Beaulieu, The Awakening of the Hast (London, 1900).
Education.—Z1, Pratique des examens littéraires (Shanghai, 1894); Idem, Pratique des examens militaires (Shanghai, 1896); Toxsar, La réforme des études en Chine in Etudes, 5 Dec., 1903; Parker, John Chinaman (London, 1901), ix, 197-200; Idem, Educational Curriculum of the Chinese in China Rev., IX, 1-13; D’Outong, La Chine novatrice et guerriére (Paris, 1906), ii, 162-68, 280-84; Martin, Chinese Education, Philosophy and Letters (New York, 1898); Gen, The Educational Directory for China (Shanghai, 1905).
Religions.—Dr Haruez, Les religions de la Chine (Leipzig, 1891); Goparp, Les croyances chinotises et japonaises (Paris, 1901); De Groot, The Religious System of China (Leyden, Amsterdam, 1894-1904); Hampprn, Dragon, Image and Demon (New York, 1887); Stanley, China from Within (London, 1901), ch. xii, 172-89; Cornaby, China under the Searchlight (London, 1901), ch. ix; Parker, China Past and Present (London, 1905), iii, 80-127.
Missions.—Nive, Etablissement et destruction de la premiere chrétienté en Chine (Louvain, 1846); Dabry pr Thiersant, Le catholicisme en Chine au VIII® siecle (Paris, 1877);
ine novatrice et guerriére (Paris, 1906), iii, 112-14, vi, 132-53; Rohrbacher, Hist. univ. de l’église cath. (Paris, 1857), X, 179-84, XI, 61-73; Parker, The Earliest Christianity in China in Dublin Rev. (1902), 380-404; Ide, China and Religion (London, 1905), vi, 120-38, ix, 178-208; Henrion, Hist. générale des missions cath. depuis le XIII® siécle jusqu’a nos jours (Paris, 1847); Yule, The Book of Marco Polo the Venetian, Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East (London, 1875); Cordier, Les voyages en Asie au XIV® siecle du B. Frere Odorie de Pordenone (Paris, 1891); Huc, Le Christianisme en Chine, en Tartarie et au Tibet (Paris, 1857-58), tr. Hazurrr (London, 1857, New York, 1887);.MarsHa.u, Christian Missions, Their Agents, Methods and Results (London, 1862); Cordier, Relations de la Chine avec les puissances étrangéres (Paris, 1901); Parker, The Preaching of the Gospel im China in China Rev. (1889), Vol. XVIII, 152-77; Frinx, The Sicawei Observatory in East of Asia Magazine (1902), I, 350-77; Kannengeiser, Missions cath. (Paris, 1900); Edkins, Religion in China (London, 1905), xiv, 166-77; Roy, Hist. abrégée des missions cath. depuis le XV® siécle jusqu’s nos jours (Tours, 1855); Proter, Les missions cath. francaises (Paris, 1904), III; Louver, Les missions cath. au XIXe siecle (Lille, Paris, 1895), xii, 215-34; Victor Bernardin DE Rovugn, Hist. univ. des missions franciscaines (Paris, 1898), I, Il; Launay, Hist. de la Société des Missions-Etrangéres (Paris, 1896); Launay, La mission du Koang-si (Paris, 1903); Reynavup, Another China (Dublin, 1897); Leroy, En; Chine, au Tché-li S. E. (Lille, 1900); PauArre, La mission du Kiangnan: son hist. et ses wuvres (Paris, 1900); Casarrexut, Catholic Missions (London, 1891); Fauvren, Nos missionaires, patriotes et savantes (Paris, 1900); Micnuim, Political Obstacles » to Missionary Success in China (Hong-Kong, 1901).
History.—Tscuepn, Hist. du royaume de Tch’ou (Ch'u State, B. c. 1122-223) (Shanghai, 1903); Idem, Hist. du royaume de Ts'in (Ts'in State B. C. 909-206) in Rev. de’ Extréme-Orient (1900-02), and Echo de Chine (1904-05); Terrien de LA Couperie, Western Origin of the Early Chinese Civilisation (London, 1894); Hawks-Pott, A Sketch of Chinese History (Shanghai, 1903); Cordier, L’ expedition de Chine de 1857-58 (Paris, 1905); Ippm, L'expedition de Chine de 1860 (Paris, 1906); Boutcer, The Life of Gordon (London, 1896); D'Anthard, Les Boxeurs (Paris, 1902); Monnimr, Le drame chinois (Jwillet-A ovit, 1900) (Paris, 1900); Colqubon, China in Transformation (London, 1898).
Foreign Relations.—Corpier, La France en Chine au XVIII¢ siecle (Paris, 1883); Idem, Centenaire de Marco Polo (Paris, 1896); Ide, Hist. des relations de la Chine avec les puissances occidentales (1860-1902) (Paris, 1903); Parker, China’s Intercourse with Europe (London, 1890); Monrauro pE Jesus, Historic Macao (Hong-Kong, 1902); Krauss, The Far East (London, 1903), ii, 15-34, iii, 35-57; McCartuy, The Coming Power: A Contemporary History of the Far Hast (1898-1905) (London, 1906); Norman, The Peoples and Politics of the Far East (London, 1895); Curzon, Problems of the Far East (London, 1896), ix, 260-310, xiv, 413-28.
TRADE AND Customs.—Epkxins, The Revenue and Taxation of the Chinese Empire (Shanghai, 1903); Host, Foreign Trade of China for the Years 1904-1905 (Foreign Office, 1906); Cordier, Les douanes impériales maritimes chinoises. Les origines et le développement (T’ung-pao, 1906); PARKER, Chinese Revenue (N. C. B. R. A. Soc., 1895); Idem, China, her History, Diplomacy and Commerce (London, 1901), x, 195- ~ Feit sa 209-26, xii, 227-43; Dyer, Things Chinese (Shanghai,
Henri Cordier.