China.—The Chinese Empire, the largest political division of Eastern Asia, extends from 18° 10’ to 53° 45’ N. lat., and from 73° 47’ to 134° 25’ E. long. It includes China proper or the Eighteen Provinces (Shi-pa-sheng), theoretically a subject territory of Manchuria, the cradle of .the present dynasty, and the dependencies: Mongolia, Ili (or Sin-kiang), and Tibet. Its boundaries are on the north, Siberia; west, Russian Turkistan; south, British India; south-east, Burma and Tong-king; east, the Pacific Ocean; north-east, Korea. This article is concerned only with China proper.
AREA AND POPULATION.—Roughly speaking, the Eighteen Provinces occupy nearly one-third of the surface of the empire. The area of China proper is estimated in round numbers at 2,000,000 square miles; Pére Richard gives 1,532,800 square miles. The length is 1860, the breadth 1520, miles. According to the official trade returns for 1906, the estimated population of China was 438,214,000, which includes that of Feng-tien (Manchurian province, 16,000,000). The “Almanach de Gotha” (1904) and the “Statesman’s Year-Book” (1905) give for the Eighteen Provinces 319,510,000 and 407,335,305 respectively, but the Hon. W. W. Rockhill in a careful study (Smithson. Miscel. Col., quart. issue 47, part III) gives so low a figure as 270,000,000. The population at various epochs is as follows: in 1390, 60,545,812; in 1500, 53,281,153; in 1619, 60,692,856; time of Macartney, 333,000,000; in 1842, 419,600,000; in 1894, 421,800,000.
NAMES.—The Chinese called their empire Chung Kwo (Middle Kingdom), a name first applied to Ho-nan, the country of the Chou dynasty; a Chinaman is designated Chung-kwo-jen or man of the Middle Kingdom; in diplomacy China is Ta-ts’ing Kwo (the great empire of Ts’ing, the present dynasty), as it was formerly Ta Ming Kwo (the great empire of Ming). In literature it is called T’ien Hia (Under Heaven), Sze Hai [the four (surrounding) seas], Chung Hwa Kwo (the Middle Flowery Kingdom); some names refer to celebrated dynasties, Hwa Hia (glorious Hia), Han-jen or Han-tze (men or sons of Han), T’ang-jen or T’ang-shan (men or mountains of T’ang).
The Arabs called China Sin, Chin, Mahachin, Machin. The Sine and Seres of Ptolemy and other classic writers probably represent the Chinese. In the Middle Ages, Europeans made a distinction between Northern (Cathay) and Southern (Manzi) China. It is probable that the name China, from the Ts’in dynasty (third century B. c.), reached the West by way of Burma and India.
PHYSICAL FEATURES.—Coast and Islands.—The Pacific Ocean bears several names; to the south it is called Nan-hai, or South (China) Sea, farther up the coast, Tung-hai, or Eastern Sea, and Hwang-hai, or Yellow Sea. The coast forms a semicircle, the islands of the Che-kiang province (123° E. long. Greenwich), extending farthest east; to the north is the Gulf of Chi-li and Shan-tung Peninsula, to the south the Gulf of Tong-king, the Island of Hai-nan, and Lei-chou Peninsula. There are also the Gulf of Liao-tung, Miao-tao Islands, the Chusan Archipelago, with Ting-hai and the celebrated pilgrimage of P’u-tu, the islands of Amoy, Sam-sa, Hai-t’an, Kin-men, T’ung-shan, Tai-wan or Formosa (now Japanese); Nan-hai, Mirs Bay (Ta-p’ong-hai), Hiang-kiang (Hong-Kong), Lappa, and Kwang-chou Bays; the islands of Namoa, Hong-Kong, Lan-tao, Lamma Archipelago, the Ladrones (Lao-wan-chan), the Chw’an Islands (Shang-chw’an, also called San-cian or St. John’s, where St. Francis Xavier died in 1552), Hia-ch’wan, and the Paracels (Ts’i-chou).
The first beacon light was kindled at the mouth of the Yang-tze in 1855; the first lighthouse was erected on the island of Kung-tung, near Che-fu, in 1867. In 1907 the coast and ports of China had 116 lighthouses, 5 lightships, 24 lightboats, 137 buoys, 110 beacons, 392 in all.
Rivers—The chief river is the Yang-tze, called simply Ta-kiang (Great River) or Kiang (River); as far as the Sze-ch’wan bend it is called Kin-sha-kiang; its general course is from west to east and its length about 4000 miles. It is navigable from the ocean to I-ch’ang and semi-navigable, on account of the rapids, from I-ch’ang to P’ing-shan-hien. In the province of Sze-ch’wan its tributaries, on the left, are the Ya-lung-kiang, the Min-kiang (Ch’eng-tu River), and the Kia-ling-kiang; on the right the Ho-kiang and the Wu-kiang; in Hu-pe it receives on the left the Han-kiang; in Kiang-su it crosses the Grand Canal; near its mouth it receives the Hwang-pu or Shanghai River; at its estuary it is divided into two branches by Chung-ming Island; it waters the cities of Chin-kiang, Nan-king, Wu-hu, Ngan-king, Kiu-kiang, Han-kou, I-ch’ang, Ch’ung-k’ing, Sui-fu, and P’ing-shan.
Mention should be made of the following rivers: north of the Yang-tze the Liao-ho which rises in the Great K’ingan, north-east of Dolon-nor, and waters Southern Manchuria; the Pei-ho (Hai-ho) which flows through T’ien-tsin; at its mouth is Taku, formerly with forts at the entrance; the Hwang-ho (Yellow River) or simply the Ho, which is nearly as long as the Yang-tze, and is the scourge of China on account of its floods; in its middle course it forms a large bend, where it runs down between the provinces of Shen-si and Shan-si, encircling regions of the Ordos country; it receives on the right its principal tributary, the large river Wei, and on the left the Fen-ho; at one time it ran into the Yellow Sea, south of the Shan-tung Peninsula, but now it follows the course of the Ts’i-ho and runs north of the peninsula; the basin of the Ho is considered the cradle of China.
South of the Yang-tze are: the Ts’ien-tang-kiang; the Hang-chou River, celebrated on account of its bore; the Min-kiang, formed by. the Kien-k’i, the Shao-wu-k’i, and the Ning-hwa-k’i; the Fu-chou River. The Si-kiang (West River) from Yun-nan receives on the right the Yu-kiang, already increased by the influx of the Tso-kiang, the Nan-ning River; on the left the Liu-kiang, the Kwei-kiang, the Pei (North) kiang; just this side of Chao-k’ing-fu, the Si-kiang divides into a number of branches; the north branch which waters Canton is called Chu-kiang or Pearl River flows into the sea through the Hu-men, called also the Bocca Tigris or the Bogue, into which also empties from the east the Tung-kiang. The Grand or Imperial Canal, called the Yu-ho or Yun-ho, was begun, it is said, during the sixth century B. c., and was finished only in A. p. 1283 under the Mongol dynasty; it runs from T’ien-tsin to Hang-chou, cross- © ing the Yang-tze at Chin-kiang and is the water-.course of the Great Plain.
Lakes.—The chief lakes are the T’ung-ting in the Hu-nan province and the P’o-yang in Kiang-si, both south of the Yang-tze; the former fed by the Siang, Yuan, and Su, connects with the Yang-tze by the Yo-chou Canal; the latter is fed by the Kan-kiang. Mention should also be made of the Ta-hu near Su-chou (Kiang-su), and the Si-hu, near Hang-chou (Che-kiang).
Mountains.—The two chief mountain ranges of China, offshoots of the highlands of Tibet, are the Eastern Kwen-lun and the Nan-shan. The Eastern Kwen-lun include the A-la-shan and the Kan-su mountains; the Ts’in-ling, between the Hwang-ho and the Yang-tze; the Min-shan, and the Kiu-lung. The Nan-shan or Nan-ling extend from Yun-nan, Kwei-chou, and Kwang-si, between the Yang-tze and the Si-kiang, to Kwang-tung and Fu-kien, their last spurs appearing in the Chusan Archipelago. Mention should also be made of the O-mi-shan, i. e. Mount O-mi (in Sze-ch’wan), the Wu-t’ai-shan (north Shan-si), and the Dokerla, near Aten-tze, all celebrated pilgrim resorts. The Great Plain of China extends from T’ien-tsin to Hang-chou, forming part of the provinces of Chi-li, Ho-nan, Ngan-hwei, Kiang-su, and western Shan-tung; it may be considered the valley of the Grand Canal. A certain deposit called loess or hwang-t’u (yellow earth) covers a great part of Kan-su, Shen-si and particularly Shan-si; this tertiary formation is characterized by its tendency to split vertically and by the numerous clefts caused by erosion; the caves in this deposit are easily deepened and often serve as dwellings for the inhabitants; it is exceedingly fertile, for which reason the Shan-si province has been called the “granary of the empire”.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.—The territorial divisions of the Chinese Empire have varied greatly at different times. Under the Emperor Yu the Great and the Hia dynasty, the capital was Yang-hia (in Ho-nan), and China was divided into nine chou: K’e, Ts’ing, Yen, Su, Yu, Yung, Leang, King, and Yang. Under the Shang, the capital was Po, near modern Kwei-té-fu (Ho-nan), and the division remained the same. ~ Under the Chou (1122-660 B.c.) the capitals were successively Hao (Ch’ang-ngan) and Lo-yang (781 B. C.), and there were still nine chou: You, Ping, Yen, Ch’ing, Ch’e, Yung, Yu, Ching, Yang. During the period covered by the “Spring and Autumn Annals” of Confucius (781-519 B. c.) the capital was Lo-yang, and there were the following kingdoms: Chou (1122-249), Loo (1121-248), Wei (1077-413), Ts’ai (1106-446), Tsin (1106-376), Ts’aou (1051-486), Ch’eng (805-374), Woo (1290-472), Yen (863-221), Ch’en (853-478), Sung (1077-285), Ts’e (1076-220), Ts’u (1077-222), Ts’in (908-245). Under the Ts’in dynasty (220-204 B. c.) China was divided into 36 kiun. Under the Han dynasty (206 B. c.—a. p. 25) the capital was Ch’ang-ngan; there were 103 principalities, 241 marquisates, 32 tao or provinces, 1314 hien. Under the Eastern Han dynasty (a. p. 25-220), there were 13 chou and the capital was Lo-yang. The capitals of China were in turn or at the same time Lo-yang (Wei dynasty), Ch’eng-tu (Shu of Sze-ch’wan), Kien-kang, or Nan-king (Wu), Hang-chou (Southern Sung, 420-477), Ta-tung (Northern Wei, 386-532), Ch’ang-ngan (Sui, 581-618), Lo-yang (T’ang, 618-907), K’ai-feng and Hang-chou (Sung, 960-1126), Peking, called Yen-king under the Kin, and Cambalue under the Yuan. During the Mongol period China was divided into ten sheng or provinces; under the Ming dynasty there were fifteen sheng, Kan-su having been taken from Shen-si, Kiang-nan being divided into Kiang-su and Ngan-hwei, and Hu-kwang into Hu-pe and Hu-nan. There are now eighteen provinces. At one time Formosa formed one province; Kiang-hwai, or Northern .Kiang-su, was temporarily detached from Kiang-su (1905).
The Eighteen Provinces (Shi-pa-sheng) consist of :— ‘et Chi-li (meaning direct rule), in which is Peking Shun-t’ien-fu), the capital of the empire. The capital is Pao-ting; principal places: Sien-hwa, Cheng-te (Shehol), Yung-p’ing, T’ien-tsin, Ho-kien, Cheng-ting; mention should also be made of Shan-hai-kwan, the most important pass through the Great Wall, Dolon-nor (Lama-miao), the old summer residence of the Mongol emperors; the population is 29,400,000.—(2) Shan-tung (east of the mountain, the Heng-shan); capital, T’si-nan; principal places: Tsi-ning-chou; Ts’ing-chou-fu, Chou-ts’un, Lai-chou, Teng-chou, the treaty port Che-fu, the British establishment Wei-hai-wei, the German port Ts’ing-tao (Kiao-chou); the T’ai-shan is a celebrated place of pilgrimage. Confucius and Mencius were born in this province; population, 38,000,000.—(3) Shan-si (west of the mountain); capital, T’ai-yuan-fu; principal products, coal and iron; principal mountain, Wu-t’ai-shan; principal cities:
Kwei-hwa-ch’eng (also called Ku-ku-choto or blue city), Ta-tung, P’ing-yang-fu, P’ing-ting-chou; the population of Shan-si, Shen-si, Kan-su, Ho-nan, and Kwei-chou is estimated: at 55,000,000.—(4) Ho-nan [south the river (the Hwang-ho)]; capital, K’ai-feng; near Ho-nan-fu is the sacred mountain Sung, to the west of which is situated the Lung-men defile, whose banks are adorned with ancient sculptures.—(5) Kiang-su [first syllables of Kiang-ning (Nan-king) and Su-chou]; capital, Su-chou; principal city, Kiang-ning (Nan-king), formerly capital of the empire, and now residence of the viceroy of the Liang-kiang or Two Kiangs; chief cities: Shanghai, the most important trading mart of China, and Yang-chou, on the Grand Canal; population, 23,980,000.—(6) Ngan-hwei (first syllables of Ngan-k’ing and Hwei-chou); capital, Ngan-k'ing, on the left bank of the Yang-tze; principal places: Wu-hu, a treaty port, Hwei-chou, Feng-yang, the birth-place of the Mings; population, 36,000,000.—(7) Kiang-si (west of the Kiang); capital, Nan-ch’ang, on the Kan-kiang, south of the celebrated P’o-yang lake; principal places: Kiu-kiang, a treaty port, Yao-chou, King-te-chen, the centre of the manufacture of porcelain, with 160,000 workmen; population, 24,534,000.—(8) Che-kiang (crooked river); capital, Hang-chou, on the left bank of the Ts’ien-t’ang, near the celebrated Lake Si-hu; principal places: Hu-chou, Shao-hing, Ning-po, Ting-hai, Lan-k’i-hien, Kin-hwa; population, 11,800,000.—(9) Fu-kien (first syllables of Fu-chou and of Kien-ning); capital, Fu-chou, on the left bank of the Min; principal places: Ts’ean-chou, Amoy (Hiamen), Chang-chou, T’ung-ngan, Yen-p’ing, Kien-ning, Ch’ung-ngan, Lien-kiang, Fu-ning; population, 20,000,000.—(10) Hu-pe (north of the lake, Tung-t’ing); capital, Wu-ch’ang, on the right bank of the Yang-tze at the mouth of the Han-ho; opposite, on the right bank of the Han, is Han-yang, on the left, Han-kou; other important places: I-ch’ang, Sha-shi, Siang-yang; ears) 34,000,000.—(11) Hu-nan (south of the lake); capital, Ch’ang-sha, on the right bank of the Siang-kiang; principal places: Heng-chou, Siang-t’an, Siang-yin, Yo-chou, and the great mar-ket-city, Ch’ang-te; population, 22,000,000.—(12) Kwang-tung (east of the Kwang); capital, Kwang-chou (Canton) after 1664, when it superseded Chao-k’ing-fu; principal places: Chao-chou, Fa-chan, Swatow, Pak-hoi, Kiung-chou (Hai-nan); population, 32,000,000.—(13) Kwang-si (west of the Kwang); capital, Kwei-lin, on the Kwei-kiang; principal places: Wu-chou on the Si-kiang, Nan-ning on the Yu-kiang, Lung-chou on the Tso-kiang, Liu-chou on the Liu-kiang, Po-se; population, 8,000,000. —(14) Yun-nan (south of the clouds) ; capital, Yun-nan-fu; principal places: Ta-li-fu, capital of the Mohammedan rebels, Tung-ch’wan, Chao-t’ung, Meng-tze, Sze-mao, Aten-tze, Momein (Teng-yueh) ; this province has a large foreign population, ae Minchia, Lolos, Miao-tze, etc.; population, 8,000,000.—(15) Kwei- - chou (precious region); capital, Kwei-yang; principal places: Tsun-i-fu, Pi-tsieh-hien, Ngan-shun, Hing-i-fu. —(16) Shen-si (west of the Shen T’ung-kwan Pass), capital Si-ngan-fu near the Wei-ho, where the imperial court repaired during the Boxer rebellion (1900) ; principal places: Han-chung, Hing-ngan.—(17) Kan-su (first syllables of Kan-chou and Su-chou); capital, Lan-chou, on the right bank of the Hwang-ho; principal places: Si-ning; to the south-west the celebrated monastery Gum-bum, Ning-hia, Liang-chou, Kan-chou, Su-chou.—(18) Sze-ch’wan (four rivers, i. e. Yang-tze, Min, Ch’ung, and Kia-ling); capital, Ch’eng-tu, in a large and rich plain, well irrigated; principal places: Ta-tsien-lu, Ya-chou, Kia-ting, Su-chou or Sui-fu, Sh’un-k’ing, Wan, Ling-yuen, capital of Kien-ch’ang, the Lolo region, Li-tang, and Ba-tang; population, 79,500,000; estimated in 1904 by A. Hosie at 45,000,000.
The following abbreviations are used in the customs, postal, and telegraphic: An., Ngan-hwei; Che., Che-kiang; Chi., Chi-li; Fu., Fu-kien; Hei., Hei-lung-kiang (Manchuria); Ho., Ho-nan; Hun., Hu-nan; Hup., Hu-pe; Kan., Kan-su; Ki., Kiang-si; King., Sheng-king; Kir., Kirin (Manchuria); Ku., Kiang-su; Kwei., Kwei-chou; Man., Manchuria; Sha., Shan-si; She., Shen-si; Sht., Shan-tung; Si., Kwang-si; Sin., Sin-kiang; Sze., Sze-ch’wan; Tung., Kwang-tung; Yun., Yun-nan.
ETHNOGRAPHY.—It would be a great mistake to think that the Chinese people are all of one race. The ordinary Chinaman is of middle size, strongly built, with a round, full face, high cheek bones, a short, depressed nose, thick lips, and fine teeth. His eyes are black and often oblique, his complexion varying between pale white and dark brown, his forehead shaven, and his coarse black hair hanging down his back in a plait; his beard is black and scanty, his feet small. The true Chinaman, that is to say, the native of the central provinces, from the banks of the Hwang-ho and lower Yang-tze, differs greatly from his countrymen of the maritime provinces of Kwang-tung and Fu-kien. Not only are there racial differences between the various types of Chinese, but still further differences arise from the various peoples living on the borders as well as in the provinces. On the north the Tatars, Manchus, and Mongols, on the west the Tibetans are important groups. The Chinese call the non-Chinese tribes “barbarians” or Yi, Fan, and Man; the term Yi was used to designate Europeans and was prohibited by Article 51 of the British Treaty of T’ien tsin (1858); Fan-lao or Fan-jen according to S. W. Williams was used at Canton for foreigners; the general names Man and Mantze are employed more particularly in the West and the South and include such non-Chinese tribes as the Yao, Chwang, Tho, Lolo, or Y-kia, Chung-kia, Si-fan, Miao tribes, etc. dispersed throughout Sze-ch’wan and Yun-nan, while the Hakkas reside in Kwang-tung. There are also savage tribes in Formosa, on the western slope of the central range of mountains.
The queue (pien-tze) worn by the Chinese and so characteristic of the race, was imported by Manchu conquerors in 1627. To compress the feet of the females is far from being a universal custom, and has no connexion with position or fortune. Manchu ladies (i. e. those of the imperial family) and most of the southern women do not treat their feet in this unnatural way; there are no trustworthy data as to the origin of this torture, which goes back, some say, to 583 a. p. A few years ago some European ladies started an anti foot-binding movement under the name of Tien Tsu Hwei, which seems to have met with a fair amount of success. Some Chinese, especially scholars, wear extraordinarily long nails, which are intended to show that their owners are above manual labour. Sometimes they sheathe their nails with brass or silver.
GOVERNMENT.—Since the beginning of the fifteenth century the seat of the government has been Peking (northern court), its name being Shun-tien-fu in the Chi-li province; the southern court (Nan-king) was Kiang-ning in the Kiang-su province, the capital of the empire in the beginning of the Ming dynasty. The emperor is styled Hwang-ti (emperor); or Hwang-shang, Wan-sui Yeh, T’ien-tze (son of Heaven), T’ien-wang (heavenly prince); the empress is styled Hwang-heu or Chung-kung; where there are two empresses they are designated Tung-kung and Si-kung (respectively eastern and western), according to the part of the palace they live. The heir-apparent is the Hwang-t’ai-tze; the hereditary imperial nobility include: Ts’in-wang, prince of the first order; Kiun-wang, of the second order; Pei-leh (Bei-leh) of the third order; Pei-tze, of the fourth order; Fung-ngen Chen Kwo-kung, duke of the first order; Fung-ngen Fu Kwo-kung, of the second order; Pu-ju, Pa-fen Chen Kwo-kung, of the third order; Pu-ju Pa-fen Fu Kwo-kung, of the fourth order; Chen Kwo Tsiang-kiun, Fu Kwo Tsiang-kiun, Fung Kwo Tsiang-kiun, and Fung-ngen Tsiang-kiun, generalissimos of the first, second, third, and fourth classes respectively. The Tsung-shi are the imperial clansmen, descendants of Hien Tsu (1583-1615), the founder of the Manchu dynasty, and are distinguished by their yellow girdles; all affairs relating to the imperial family are treated by the Tsung-jen-fu, the Imperial Clan Court. There are eight princely families with perpetual inheritance: Li T’sin-wang, Prince of Li; Jui T’sin-wang, Prince of Jui; Yu Ts’in-wang, Prince of Yu; Su Ts’in-wang Prince of Su; Cheng Ts’in-wang, Prince of Cheng; Chwang Ts’in-wang, Prince of Chwang; Shun-ch’éng Kiun-wang, Prince of Shun-ch’éng; K’e-k’in Kiun-wang, Prince of K’e-kin. I Ts’in-wang, Prince of I, not included in the eight, is also perpetual.
The central government includes: (1) the Kiun-ki Ch’u, Council of State, created by Yung Chéng in April, 1732, includingafew ministers and sixty secretaries, Chang-king; (2) the Nei-ko or Grand Secretariat, including four grand secretaries, Ta-hio-she or Chung T’ang, two Manchus, and two Chinese, each designated by one of the pavilions of the Imperial Palace: Wen Hwa-tien, Wu Ying-tien, T’i Jen-ko, Tung-ko; under the Ming dynasty, the Chung T’ang were called Ko-lao; this was the title of the celebrated Paul Siu (Siu Kwang-k’i);_ two assistant grand secretaries styled Hie-pan Ta-hio-she; (3) the ministerial boards or Liu Pu, which, prior to 1906, numbered six: Li Pu, Board of Civil Appointments; Hu Pu, Board of Reyenue; Li Pu, Board of Rites; Ping Pu, Board of War; Hing Pu, Board of Justice; Kung Pu, Board of Public Works. The Yo Pu or Board of State Music is a dependency of the Board of Rites. Some of these boards or ministries have been remodelled, and new ones created since 1906, and they now include, besides the Wai-wu Pu, the following boards: Li Pu, the Board of Civil Office; the Min-cheng Pu, Board of Home Affairs; the Tu-chi Pu, Board of Finance; Hio Pu, Board of Education, or of Public Instruction; Fa Pu, Board of Justice; the Lu-kiun Pu, Ministry of War; Nung-kung-shang Pu, Board of Agriculture, Works, and Commerce; the Yu-chw’an Pu, Board of Posts and Communications, including steam navigation, posts, and telegraphs; Li Pu, Board of Rites; Siun-king Pu, Board of Public Safety. Previous to 1906 each board had two presidents (Shang-shu), Manchu and Chinese, two senior vice-presidents (Tso She Lang), and two junior vice-presidents (Yeo She Lang); there are now one president and two vice-presi-dents. The Tsung-li Ko Kwo-she-wu Yamen, commonly called Tsung-li Yamen, the Foreign Office, was created by Hien Fung, 20 January, 1861, after the war with France and England; previously foreign affairs had been dealt with by the Li Fan-yuan, board for the administration of vassal countries, controlling Mongolia, Tibet, etc. and formerly Russia; the Li Fan-yuan has now become a ministry of colonies; the Tsung-li Yamen was replaced (24 July, 1901) by the Wai-wu Pu. The Court of Censors or Censorate (Tu Ch’a Yuan) has two presidents (Tu Yu-she), four vice-presidents, twenty-four supervising censors (Liuk’o), divided into six boards, and thirty-eight censors (Yu-che), distributed over fifteen Tao or circuits. The Han-lin Yuan, college of academicians, has two presidents (Chang-yuan Hio-she). There are also the Kwo Tze Kien or imperial college, and K’in-t’ien Kien, or board of astronomy, etc.
PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION.—There are eighteen provinces (Shi-pa-sheng); these sheng are divided into Tao (circuits), Fu (Prefectures), T’ing (independent sub-prefectures), Chou, and Hien; independent chou are called Chi-li Chou. The’ Eighteen Provinces, together with Sin-kiang, are under eight governors-general or viceroys (Tsung-tu or Che-t’ai) and twelve governors, three of whom are independent. The eight viceroyalties are the Chi-li, Liang-kiang (including Kiang-su, Ngan-hwei, and Kiang-si), Min-che (Fu-kien, Che-kiang), Liang-hou (Hu-pe, Hu-nan), Liang-kwang (Kwang-tung, Kwang-si), Yun-kwei (Yun-nan, Kwei-chou), Shen-kan (Shen-si, Kan-su), and Sze-ch’wan. Each province is presided over by a governor (Siun-fu, Fu-t’ai) except Chi-li, Fu-kien, Kan-su, Sze-ch’wan, Kwang-tung, Yun-nan, and Kan-su; there is one in Sin-kiang; the Fu-t’ai of Shan-tung, Shan-si, and Ho-nan are not under a governor-general but are directly under Peking. Immediately after the governor are ,the high provincial treasurer (Pu-cheng She-sze or Fan-t’ai), the high provincial judge (Ngan-ch’a She-sze or Nieh-t’ai), the salt controller (Yen-yun She-sze), and the grain intendant (Liang-tao); these various officials constitute each provincial government under the collective name of Tu-fu Sze-tao. Next in order come the Fen-siun Tao: the intendant of a circuit (Tao-t’ai —98 in all), the prefect of a Fu (Che-fu—181), the T’ung-che (170); the T’ung-p’an (141); the Che-chou (140); the Che Hien, district magistrate (1290); there is a Hio-cheng (Hio-yuan, Hio-t’ai), or provincial director of instruction in each province, who presides at the prefectural examinations.
The Chinese functionaries known to Europeans as Mandarin (from mandar, command) are called Kwan by the Chinese; there are nine ranks of kwan, divided into civil and military officials, who are distinguished by the button worn on the official hat, by the square embroidered badge on the breast and back of official robes (a bird for the civil, a quadruped for the military), and by the clasp of the girdle. % Burton CLASPS 1 Ruby or trans-| Crane Unicorn Jade set in parent red rubies stone 2 Red coral Golden Lion Gold set in
Pheasant rubies
3 Sapphire Peacock Leopard Chased gold 4 Lapis lazuli Wild Goose Tiger Chased gold with silver button
5 Crystal Silver Pheas-| Black Bear Plain gold
: an with silver
? button
6 Opaque white Egret Tiger Cat Mot BS r of pear!
7 Plain gold M Be ae rin| Mottled Bear} Silver uc. 8 Chased gold Quail Seal Clear horn 9 Silver Longtailed Rhinoceros Buffalo horn
Jay !
A provincial official down to Tao-t’ai inclusive is styled Ta-jen (great man); from Che Fu to Che Hien, the name is Ta Lao-ye (great old father); for the rest Lao-ye (old father). Various forms of distinction are awarded for public services; the principal is the Ling-che (the feather), of which there are three grades corresponding to degrees of distinction: the three-eyed, the two-eyed, and the one-eyed peacock feather (K’ung Tsio-ling) and the crow feather (Lan-ling, blue feather). The chief distinction for military men is the Hing-kwa or Hwang-ma-kwa (yellow riding jacket). There are nine degrees of nobility, either transmissible to a certain number of ancestors or descendants (she-si), or hereditary forever (she-si-wang): Kung (duke), Hou (marquis), Pe (earl—together designated as Ch’ao P’in), Tze (viscount), Nan (baron), K’ing-ch’e Tu-yu, K’i-tu-yu, Yun-k’i-yu, Ngen-k’i-yu. The translations sometimes given the first five titles are indicated in parentheses. The ’residence of a mandarin holding a Seal is called a Yamen; that of a mandarin without a Seal, a Kung-su.
EDUCATION.—Formerly Chinese -children, after being taught to read and write, had to learn such elementary books as the “San-tze-king” (Three-Character Classic), the “ Pe-kia-sing” (Hundred Family Names), and the “Ts’ien-tze-wen” (One Thousand-Character Classic); later they studied the “Sze Shu”, or ‘Four Classical Books”. Memory was developed at the expense of the critical faculty, science being almost entirely neglected. A good calligraphy and a thorough knowledge of the Confucian classics were the main requisites for passing an examination, in which an essay on texts selected from these classics, and called wen-chang, played a considerable part. The wen-chang, suppressed in 1898 during the short period of reform, has been definitely abolished. The civil officers were recruited from those who passed the three examinations: Hiang-she (provincial), held triennially in the autumn; Hwai-she (metropolitan), held at Peking, in the spring; Tien-she, the palace examination. The student (T’ung-sheng) took in succession the three degrees: Siu-ts’ai, Ku-jen, and Tsin-she; at the last examination the first four competitors received the titles of Chwang Yuan, Pang Yen, T’an Hwa, and Ch’wan Lu.
After the war with Russia China felt the necessity of a thorough change; Confucianism was no longer a sufficient weapon against Western enterprise. Elementary, higher primary, middle, higher, and special schools were established on. foreign principles. A university and a technical school were opened at Peking, while young students were sent abroad, especially to Japan. It must be admitted that the latter brought back from the Empire of the Rising Sun an entirely new spirit. They have been responsible, to a great extent, for the reorganization of the secret societies, which aim not only at reform, but also at the overthrow of the present dynasty. By an imperial decree which was dated 2 Sept., 1905, and went into effect at the beginning of 1906, the former programme and methods of examination were abolished, and a new system of education inaugurated. This includes the study of the Chinese language, literature, and composition, the various sciences studied in the West, history, geography, foreign languages, especially Japanese, gymnastic exercises and drills, and in the higher grades the study of political economy, and civil and international law. As a natural consequence new degrees corresponding to B.A., M.A., LL.D., etc. were created. It is evident that the Chinese attitude of mind is undergoing a great change through contact with Western ideas and learning; what is less evident is that the deeper layers of the nation have not been reached.
PHILOSOPHY.—Chinese philosophy, at least in what is fundamental, is embodied in the religious books, or rather in the classical works called “ King”. Confucius was more of a collector than a creator; he was a moral teacher, imbued with traditions which he had studied and mastered, and of which he was the ideal representative, but he was no inventor. The man who stamped Chinese philosophy with his strong personality, or rather his genius, was the philosopher Chu Hi (a. p. 1130-1200), born in Fu-kien during the Sung dynasty. He had a retreat for intervals of meditation at the White Deer Grotto in the hills near P’o-yang Lake. The “ Book of Changes” (Y-king) begins with the T'ai-ki, the Great Absolute; according to Chu Hi there was in the beginning the primordial principle, the abstract monad called the “absolute nothing”, Wu-ki. When moving, the Great Absolute produced by the congealing of its breath the Yang, the great male principle; when it finally rested it produced the Yin, or the great female principle; after this great division what was above was heaven, beneath was earth, and during the subsequent evolutions and movement were created in turn, the sun and the moon, the stars and the planets, water and fire, men and animals, vegetables and minerals, etc. Four laws regulate the present movement of the two principles: (1) Hi%, the breath of nature, governed not by arbitrary, but by fixed inscrutable, laws; (2) Li, the laws of nature; (3) So, the numbers or numerical proportions of the universe; (4) Ying, the appearance of forms of nature.
This philosophical system is represented by diagrams. Sometimes the three powers of nature (San-t'sai), i.e. T’ven (Heaven), Ti VS (Earth), Jen (Man), are indicated by a triangle . The two primitive principles are shown, the first by a straight line which corresponds to Yang, the male principle, heaven, light, etc.; the second by a broken line —— —— which corresponds to Yin, the female principle, earth, darkness, etc. Combinations of these lines give the following four figures:—
(1) Gyn Ke) (4) (1) T'ai Yang, corresponding to sun, heat, eyes, etc.; (2) The T'ai Yin corresponding to the moon, cold, ears, etc.; (3) The Shao Yang corresponding to the stars, daylight, the nose, etc.; (4) The Shao Yin corresponding to the planets, night, the mouth, etc. A new combination of these figures was revealed to Fu-hi (2852-2738 sB. c.), by a dragon-horse which rose from the Yellow River and presented to the gaze of the emperor a scroll upon its back inscribed with mystic diagrams which, being arranged, consisted of eight trigrams or symbols called Pa-kwa:— Oo 2 (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) ® ® ® © @
(8) (1) Corresponds to Heaven and the pure male principle, being entirely composed of whole lines; (2) vapours, watery exhalations, lakes; (3) fire, heat, light; (4) thunder; (5) wind; (6) water; (7) moun. tains; (8) earth and the pure female principle, being entirely composed of broken lines. An octagonal arrangement devised by the philosophers of the Sung dynasty gives the figures called Sven-tien:—
SIEN-TIEN
Shen-nung, the second of the Five Emperors, is held to have multiplied by eight the original Kwa of Fu-hi, forming sixty-four hexagrams. This number multiplied by 6 gives 384, the maximum to which the calculations can be carried practically, though it is stated that a series of 16,777,216 different forms can be obtained. The two principles forming the Tai-ki were sometimes represented by two opposite semi-circles in a circle, the two portions of the circle in dark and clear respectively; later on a dark disk was inserted in the clear portions and a clear disk in the dark portions.
The male and female principles may also be represented by a circle and a square;' for instance at Peking the Temple of Heaven is circular while the Temple of Earth is square; the common coin called cash being round with a square hole in the centre is a perfect symbol of Heaven and Earth.
CLASSICS.—The doctrine of Confucius and his school is contained in the classical books called “King”. Five of the classics of the highest grade include: (1) The “ Y-king” (Book of Changes) with 24,107 characters; (2) the “Shu-king” (Book of History) in fifty-eight chapters with 25,700 characters, extends from Emperors Yao and Shun to Ping Wang of the Chou dynasty (720 B. c.); (3) the “She-king” (Book of Odes) with 39,234 characters, a collection of popular poetry in use in the petty states of China, collected and arranged by Confucius; (4) the “ Li-ki” (Book of Rites) in forty-nine chapters (including the “Ta-hio” and the “Chung-yung”, 99,010 characters); (5) the “Ch’un-ts’ew” (Spring and Autumn), or the annals of Lu, the native State of Confucius, from 722 to 484 B. c. The “ Yo-king” (Book of Music) was lost. Next came the lesser “King”: (1) the “Sze-shu” (Four Books), “Ta-hio’? (Great Study), “Chung-yung” (Invariable Medium), “ Lun-yu” (miscellaneous conversations between Confucius and his disciples), and “ Meng-tze”, the conversations of the sage Mencius (34,685 characters; with the commentary 209,749); (2) the two rituals, “I-li”? and “Chou-li” (45,806 characters); (3) the “ Hiao-king” (Book of Filial Piety with 1903 characters); (4) the three ancient commentators of the “Ch’un-ts’ew”: “Tso-shi”, “Kung-yang”, and “Ku-liang”; (5) the “Eul-ya” (Literary Exposition), a dictionary of terms used in the classical writings of the same period. It must be borne in mind that Confucius was an administrator, a statesman, in a word, a practical man, as well as a moralist, but entirely devoid of originality.
The most distinguished followers of Confucius (b. 551; d. 479 B. c.) were Tsang-shen (506 B. c.), and Meng-tze (Mencius, 372-289 B. c.). The rival of Confucius was Lao-tze or Lao-kiun, a far deeper philosopher, author of the “Tao-teh-king” and of the “Kan-ying-pien”, with his disciples, Kang-sang-tze (570-43 B. c.), Li-tze (500 B. c.), and Wen-tze (500 B. C.). The heterodox philosophers were Meh-ti (450 B.c.) and Yang-chu (450 B. c.); the Taoists, Chwang-tze (330 B. c.) and Hwai-nan-tze (second century B. c.). Mention should also be made of Wang-ch’ung, author of the “ Lun-héng” (first century A. D.), Han-yu or Han Wen-Kung (a. pv. 768-824), and finally, under the Sung, the reformer Wang Ngan-shi (1021-86) and the illustrious Chu-hi (a. p. 1130-1200).
STATE RELIGIONS.—The three state religions of China (San-kiao or three doctrines) are Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism.—Confucianism or Ju-kiao (a name adopted by the disciples of Chu-hi in a. p. 1150) is the religion of the literati; from the moral principles taken from the books arranged by Confucius a state religion has been created; the trinity (San-ts’ai), Heaven, Earth, and Man, is represented by the emperor, T'ien-tze, Son of Heaven, the high-priest of the cult, who pays his homage to heaven at the winter solstice at midnight and to earth at the summer solstice. The state worship includes three grades of sacrifices, the victims being things, though persons are not excluded: (1) the great sacrifices offered only to Tien (Heaven), 7%, (Earth), Tai Miao (great temple of ancestors) and Shieh-tsi (gods of the land and grain); (2) the medium sacrifices, an homage to the sun, the moon, the names of the emperors and kings of foreign dynasties, Confucius, the ancient patrons of agriculture and silk, the gods of heaven, earth, and the cyclic year; (3) the inferior sacrifices (Kiun-sze, crowd of sacrifices), offered to the patron of medicine, the spirits of celebrated men, the clouds, rain, wind, and thunder, the five celebrated mountains, the four seas, four rivers, etc. The supreme ruler of heaven is Shang-ti. There is no priesthood in Confucianism.
Taoism or T'ao-kiao was invented by the disciples of Lao-tze, but the lofty theories of this philosopher have degenerated into the grossest superstitions, alchemy, astrology, and the worship of a Pantheon of idols, the highest of which is Yu-hwang Shang-ti; the chief of the Taoists resides at Lung-hu-shan (Kiang-si); most of the hierarchy are extremely ignorant.
Buddhism or Fo-kiao, the religion of Fo (Buddha) comes from India; it is said to have reached China in 221 or 219 B. c., but this is hardly probable. The first certain fact regarding Chinese Buddhism is that it was orally taught in the year 2 B. c. to an ambassador of the Emperor Ngai by the Ta Yue-chi or Indo-Scythians; it was officially recognized by the Emperor Ming-ti (A. p. 61). The search for manuscripts in India led pilgrims like Fa-hian and Sung-yun (Fo-kwo-ki), Hwei-shin, the celebrated Hiuan-tsang (seventh century), I-tsing, Wang Hiuan-ts’e, Wu-k’ung, and others to undertake long voyages which have thrown great light on the geography of Northern India and Central Asia. In spite of their exertions and of the numerous manuscripts they brought home,
Tue Pi-Yung-Kung or Hay or Classics, PEKING it was not until 1410 that the Chinese procured a complete copy of the Buddhist canon; some of the Buddhist sanctuaries are famous places of pilgrimage: the island of P’u-tu (Chu-san), the Wu T’ai-shan (Shan-si); the Omei-shan (Sze-chw’an), the Dokerla (Yun-nan). The Buddhist priests gather in monasteries; the superiors of a district or prefecture are called Seng-lu-sze; they are selected from the leading abbots (fang-chang); besides the superiors (Seng-kang, Seng-cheng, Seng-hwei), there are preceptors, preachers, expositors, and clerks. Buddhism, with its numerous monks, is the most popular religion of China, though a member of one sect very often borrows practices from the other cults and, if an official, will invariably perform the ceremonies of Confucianism. Whatever be the importance of these three religions, they are insignificant as compared with the real, national religion of all the Chinese—ancestor-worship.
Ancestor-worship originated in filial piety which, being of paramount importance in the eyes of the Chinese, is the object of a special book, the “ Hiao-king”. Filial piety, however, is not a natural spontaneous feeling, but a well-defined duty, embracing the obligations towards the emperor, princes, officials, parents, and these’ vary according to the classes and the people. In every house there is a tablet, if not a room; a rich family has a separate building; this is the hall of ancestors; the tablets are called p'ai-wei and the temples tze-t’ang. During the period called tsing-ming, in the first part of April, a general worship of ancestors takes place in the form of libations, and the burning of candles, paper, and incense; this cult was prohibited the Christians by a Bull of 1742.
Another great and popular superstition is Fung-shui (wind and water). To describe this is impossible, though it is the daily guide in a Chinaman’s life. It is a system of geomancy founded on the “ Y-king”, systematized in the twelfth century; the date of a marriage, the proper place for a burial ground, a lucky site for a building, etc., the settlement of all these questions depends on the laws of Fung-shui laid down by the professors, who, besides a knowledge of Buddhist and Taoist doctrines, had some superficial ideas regarding natural science, medicine, and astronomy.